前言：
大家可能会发现这一讲和之前的有些突兀，怎么就突然跳出来一大堆理论了。其实课程安排上来说，前两讲都是游戏的特征，到这里过渡到电子游戏上了。电子游戏作为数字媒体的一种，不仅有之前宏观游戏的所有的特点，以及继承的过去其它传统媒介的特点，还具有其在数字环境下所表现出来的新特点。
Murray将电子游戏的特点归纳为交互性和沉浸感。而交互性又可分为程序性和参与性，沉浸感则可分为百科全书性和空间感。Galloway则从电子游戏的构成入手，将打游戏分解为玩家，电脑，游戏软件三部分。这个理论会在第14讲中被游戏空间学说扩展。
*这一讲开始正式进入游戏叙事学派Narratology的理论了，所谓叙事学派就是研究如何更好的通过游戏讲故事。教授Janet Murray的作品Hamlet on the holodeck可谓是该学派的“桥头堡”，为剧情向游戏设计提供了坚实的指导思想。
CMS.300 – Intro to Video Game Theory
Session 3 – DIGITAL ENVIRONMENTS & GAMES 数字环境与游戏
Readings 课程阅读
Murray, Hamlet on the Holodeck ChI-3, From Additive to Expressive form. Galloway, Gaming Action, Four Moments.
Janet H. Murray，佐治亚理工文学，媒体与传播学院教授。曾任麻省理工教育计算计划中心的高级研究科学家，教授人文学科并领导高级交互设计项目。她是著名的人文计算应用程序开发者，一位开创性的数字媒体理论家，以及数字媒体教育的倡导者。
Alexander R. Galloway 纽约大学媒体、文化和传播系教授
Concepts/Keywords
• Interactive 交互的
Procedural & Participatory 步骤性的 & 参与性的
• Immersive 沉浸感的
Spatial & Encyclopedic 空间性 & 百科全书性
• Scripting the interactor
为玩家写脚本（预测玩家的行为，并以此来设计游戏算计玩家）
• Diegetic / Non-diegetic
diegesis：exist in the narrative world
叙事中的 / 叙事外的 （举例：电影中的对话与旁白）
• Operator
操作员（操作游戏硬件，互动游戏软件的玩家）
Goals
• Understanding basic principles of digital media foundations to understand how to digest media changes games
理解数字媒体的基础和基本概念，以理解媒体是如何改变游戏的
Intro:
Murray talks about Digital Media in general, not Video Games alone; Galloway Focuses on games
Murray 谈论的是一般的数字媒体，而不仅仅是视频游戏；Galloway则专注于游戏。
Both try to find the essential principles of the medium, what sets them apart from other media. There is a focus on the object, not the human side.
两人都试图找到将数字媒体与其他媒体形式分开的，本质的特征。研究更集中在物质特征，而非人性方面。
Every new media tech starts by imitating previous media forms.
每一种新的媒体技术都是从模仿以前的媒体形式开始的。
Additive Forms: 累加的形式
• photo – paintings with light - “multimedia”
照片－用光线作为颜料的绘画－“多媒体”
• film – photo play or moving pictures
电影－照片放映或移动图片
• TV – radio with images
电视－有图像的广播
In the end, these media forms must find their own expressive, distinctive, principles
但在最后，这些媒体形式都需要找到自己的表现力，独特性，和原则特征
MURRAY
Murray approaches Digital Media from the standpoint of NARRATIVE, as a new narrative form 4 Essential properties of digital environments: Murray 从叙事的角度切入数字媒体，将其理解为4种本质特征构成的数字环境。
INTERACTIVE: 互动性的：
PROCEDURAL 按步骤执行的，程序性的
the procedural affordance is the fundamentai to all others (participatory, spatial, encyclopedic), and the single-most-important source of representational power.
• Develop and behave according to two sets of rules 发展和行为由两套规则指导（屏幕上显示的，面对玩家的，游戏的规则；和后台运行的，给机器运行的，算法程序的规则）
• Eliza example
Eliza 是 MIT 1966年开发的聊天机器人，早期的自然语言处理计算机程序之一。Eliza 通过使用“模式匹配”和替代方法模拟对话，让用户对程序有一种它理解了的错觉。其交互的指令是由“脚本”提供的， ELIZA 处理用户输入并按照脚本的规则和方向进行讨论。https://web.njit.edu/~ronkowit/eliza.html
PARTICIPATORY 可以被参与的
Apparent in the unprecedented growth of social media over the past decade, which has a continuously updated global forum for sharing media of all forms
• Responsive to interactor's input
可以对互动者的输入做出反应
• participation in Zork is continuous, it is trial and error until you get it right
Zork中的参与是连续的，玩家试错学习直到成功
• part of the pleasure of Zork is testing the limits of what the program can do:
Zork游戏的乐趣部分在于探索游戏程序的界线，看看哪些事情可以做到哪些不能：
• this is possible because it's not branching, but instead using Object-Oriented Programming.
Zork实现这一特质在于q其使用了非分支的，物品导向的编程。
• Scripting the interactors in Zork - Dungeons and Dragons (D&D) provides the script
Zork编排玩家，剧本来自龙与地下城
Zork是MIT在1979年开发的互动式文字冒险游戏（不是GAL!）
IMMERSIVE: 沉浸感
SPATIAL 空间性
Apperant in the stunning succes of virtual-world-building platforms
• Represent a space to navigate or move through
一个可以被穿越或在其中*移动的空间
• Different from book – happens here and now
和书籍中的世界不同，虚拟世界是实时实地发生的
• Experimental drama of digital environments makes it not possible in other media
数字环境的实验性戏剧使其在其他媒体中不可能实现
• arguable – how is it different from table-top games like D&D?
讨论－这和龙与地下城一样的跑团游戏的区别在哪里
ENCYCLOPEDIC 百科全书式的
A feature of most spatial games, enhancing immersion by the breadth of coverage and granularity of detail
• Refers to storage capacity of computers
指代电脑的信息存储能力
• Problems:
· info is often fragmented or incomplete
信息往往是碎片化或不完整的
· Stories can be long-winded, formless, confusing (where to go next?)
故事可以是冗长的，无形的，令人迷惑的
· Compelling property for narrative
引人注目的叙事特征
· About Civilization (the computer game) → “in Digital Media the interpretive framework is embedded in the rules by which the system works and the way participation is shaped” (systems embed volume)
关于游戏《文明》，“在数字媒体中，解释框架被植入到系统的规则和参与的方式中”
Galloway studies the medium of the Video Game
Galloway研究电子游戏的媒介特征
Cultural Objects: 文化物体
• bound by history and materiality
由历史和物质联系
· electronic computation on a device
在设备上的电子计算
· game simulated in software
由软件实现的游戏模拟
• photograph – images
照相－图像
• films – moving images
电影－会动的图像
• games – actions
游戏－交互动作
Machine Actions (see notes at back) 机器活动
• What game actions apply? 什么是机器活动？
Machine actions and operator actions
Machine actions are acts performed by the software and hardware of the game computer, while operator actions are acts performed by players. Video games come into being when the machine is powered up and the software is executed. One plays a game. And the software runs. The operator and the machine play the video game together. 机器活动是由游戏电脑的硬件和软件共同完成的活动，而操作员活动是由玩家完成的动作。电子游戏存在于电脑被启动，软件被执行之后。当一个人玩游戏时，软件开始运行。操作员和机器一起完成玩电子游戏的行为。
• Computer Bugs 计算机bug
·How are they disabling acts? 计算机bug是如何阻碍活动的？
课程阅读：
If we want to see beyond the current horizon of scrapbook multimedia, it is important first to identify the essential properties of digital environment that is, the qualities comparable to the variability of the lens, the movbility of the camera, and the editability of film, that will determine the distinctive power and form of a mature electronic narrative art. 如果我们想超越只会复制粘贴的当前多媒体形式，则首先必须确定数字环境的基本属性，即与镜头的可变性、相机的可移动性和胶片的可编辑性相同的媒体的本质特征，这将会决定成熟的电子叙事艺术的独特力量与形式。
Eliza was brought to life by the procedural power of the computer, by its defining ability to execute a series of rules. It is surprising how often we forget that the new digital medium is intrinsically procedural. Although we may talk of an information highway and of billboards in cyberspace, in fact the computer is not fundamentally a wire or a pathway but an engine.计算机的程序性能力，以及它执行一系列规则的能力，使Eliza变得栩栩如生。令人惊讶的是，我们经常忘记新兴的数字媒体本质上是程序性的。虽然我们经常谈论“信息高速公路”和“网络空间中的billboard”，但事实上，计算机从根本上来说不是一根线或一条通道，而是一个引擎。
In order to succeed (in Zork), you must orchestrate your actions carefully and learn from repeated trial and error... In a way, the computer was programming the player.为了（在Zork中）成功，你必须精心安排你的行动，并从反复的尝试和错误中学习。。。在某种程度上，计算机正在编排玩家的行动。
By contrast (to Zork), more conventional programmers of the 1970s were stillthinking in terms of the branching trees, fixed subroutines, and uniform data structure that go back to the early understanding of the computer as a means of encoding information purely in the form of yes/no decisions. In fact, most interactive narrative written today still follows a simple branching structure, which limits the interactor's choices to a selection of a alternatives from a fixed menu of some kind. 相比之下（与Zork相比），20世纪70年代更为传统的程序员仍在思考分支树、固定子程序和统一的数据结构，这些都可以追溯到早期对计算机的理解，即纯粹以 是/否 决策的形式对信息进行编码。事实上，今天编写的大多数互动叙事仍然遵循一个简单的分支结构，这将参与互动者的选择限制为从某种固定菜单中选择一个选项的方案。
The first step in making an enticing narrative world is to script the interactor... The fantasy environment provided the interactor with a familiar role and made it possible for the programmers to anticipate the interactor's behaviors. By using these literary and gaming conventions to constrain the players' behaviors to a dramatically appropriate but limited set of commands, the designers could focus their inventive powers on making the virtual world as responsive as possible to every possible combination of these commands... the challenge for the future is to invent scripts that are formulaic enough to be easily grasped and responded to but flexible enough to capture a wider range of human behaviour. 制作一个诱人的叙事世界的第一步是为参与交互者编写行为脚本。。。幻想环境为交互者提供了一个熟悉（在各种作品中常见）的可扮演角色，使程序员能够提前预测交互者（扮演该角色时）的行为。通过使用文学和游戏的惯例，可以将玩家的行为限制在一组非常合适但数量有限的命令中。在此基础上，设计师可以将他们的创造力集中在使虚拟世界尽可能对这些命令的每一种可能组合都做出响应。。。而未来的挑战在于设计足够公式化的脚本，以便于掌握和响应，同时足够灵活的捕捉更广泛的交互者的行为。
You, as player/interactor ... are not just reading about an event that occurred in the past; the event is happening now, and, unlike the action on the stage of a theater, it is happening to you. 你，作为玩家/互动者。。。不是像读书那样阅读过去发生的事件；（游戏中的）事件发生在现在，而且与观看剧院舞台上的表演演出不同的是，游戏事件正在发生在作为玩家的你身上。
However, the encyclopedic nature of the medium can also be a handicap. It encourages long-windedness and formlessness in storytellers, and it leaves reads/interactors wondering which of the several endpoints is the end and how they can know if they have seen everything there is to see. 然而，媒体的百科全书性质也可能会是一个障碍。因为它鼓励讲故事的人讲述长篇大论和无任何形式的故事（一本字典），这就会让读者/互动者想了解多个端点中的哪一个才是终点，以及他们要如何知道自己已经看完了所有要看的东西。
Procedural design + Participatory Design > Experience of Agency
程序性 + 参与性 > Agency的感受
（Agency: the satisfying power to take meaningful action and see the results of our decisions and choices. 由于玩家采取了有意义的（深思熟虑的）行动并且观察到其决定和选择所带来的结果的满足感。见第7讲后的Catch Up Class）
Encyclopedic Extent + Coherent Spatial Navigation > Immersion
百科全书式的内含 + 连贯的空间感 > 游戏的沉浸感